Meet xenobots: The world’s first living robots

Posted on October 23, 2021 by Vaishnavi Muralikrishnan

What comes to mind when you think of machines? Perhaps structures made of metal, plastic, or ceramics. What if I told you scientists have built tiny robots from frog cells that can move, remember things, and heal themselves? I am talking about Xenobots 2.0, the world’s first living robots, which were made using cells derived from frog embryos. They are named after the African clawed frog (Xenopus laevis) from which they were created. Biologists at Tufts University and computer scientists from the University of Vermont came together to develop these living robots from frog stem cells using artificial intelligence. Stem cells are specialized cells that can develop into different cell types. In the case of xenobots, the stem cells were transformed into frog skin (green) and heart cells (red).

(Left) Block like structure created using green and red blocks. (Right) A blob of cells red and green in color. — (Left) The structure of a xenobot designed by an artificial intelligence simulation. (Right) The final biological organism that was created using the simulated design from the frog cells. Green cells represent the frog cells that create the structure of the xenobot, and red cells represent the heart cells that assist in movement. *Image credit: Sam Kriegman (https://cdorgs.github.io).*

What makes these organisms so cool is that they are versatile in their structure and function. Researchers used supercomputers to model the cellular building blocks of xenobots. Imagine cells to be like LEGO® bricks that are used to make specific structures. Using artificial intelligence, the anatomy of the robots is generated by computers. In addition, a computer simulation is used to design the actions that a xenobot is capable of. The computer then selects the designs that perform best in the simulations, and these blobs of cells are carved into the shapes designed by the computer using minute tools. These microscopic robots live in freshwater between 40-80 degrees Fahrenheit, and they consist of about 5,000 cells and are approximately 0.7 millimeters in size. Xenobots contain a pre-loaded source of nutrition, including proteins and fats, that can sustain them for over a week. However, in environments rich in nutrients, they can live for months.

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How gender is conveyed through speech

Posted on October 16, 2021 by Guest Contributor

This post was written by Brandon Merritt, a Ph.D. candidate in the Department of Speech, Language, and Hearing Sciences at Indiana University.

When we hear a voice, the speaker’s gender is one of the first things we notice about them. Even if we’re asked to categorize speakers based on dialect or accent, we still gravitate toward grouping them based on how we perceive their gender.

In my lab, we study which specific physical properties of speech (known as acoustic cues) control how gender identity is perceived. The acoustic cues we examine are voice pitch (controlled by how quickly the vocal folds vibrate), voice resonance (a result of the size and shape of the throat and mouth), articulation (how we produce the consonant and vowel sounds in our speech), and intonation (the melody we produce with our speech).

A diagram showing the difference between pitch, resonance, articulation, and intonation

In read speech or in conversation, articulation and intonation appear to become more important indicators of gender identity. Articulation, or how we produce consonants such as “s” and “sh” and vowel sounds, seems to be an especially strong cue to gender for listeners. Speakers who make more precise consonants and vowels may be perceived as more feminine, while those who use less precise articulation may be perceived as more masculine.

Unfortunately, research on how gender is projected and perceived through speech has historically been limited to cisgender individuals (i.e., those whose gender identity matches the sex assigned to them at birth), and excludes transgender individuals (i.e., those whose gender identity does not match the sex assigned to them at birth). So, most of what we know about gender and speech is based off of cisgender men and women and assumes a binary classification of gender (i.e., male or female).

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Do extreme floods and droughts cause more extreme floods and droughts?

Posted on October 9, 2021 by Dan Myers

Extreme floods and droughts are considered to be one of the greatest challenges to society in the 21st century. Historically, they have led to the collapse of civilizations, fatalities, and economic losses. In Indiana, recent droughts, such as the drought of 2012, have affected agriculture and water supplies. Recent flooding, such as summer 2021’s disasters in downtown Bloomington, have damaged businesses and homes. Now, the prevalence of these extreme events is increasing around the world; heavy rainstorms are increasing the severity and frequency of floods, while warming temperatures and a thirsty atmosphere are making droughts more severe.

A corn field during a drought with dry, cracked soil. — Soil cracking during a drought. *Image credit: Bob Nichols, USDA / USGS (public domain).*

It is clear that landscapes can have a major influence on how severe these disasters are. For instance, soils that quickly become saturated with water during a rainstorm can cause more precipitation to run off into streams, rather than soaking into the ground. Also, soils that lose water quickly to the atmosphere can reduce water supplies during droughts. But, can these influences go in the other direction? Could the presence of large floods alter soil or vegetation conditions (particularly in floodplains) so that the next flood is more extreme? Or, could prolonged periods of drought cause soils to crack or blow around and lose scarce water more quickly?

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A study on grammar and the bilingual brain

Posted on October 2, 2021 by Guest Contributor

This post was written by Kyle Swanson, a Ph.D. candidate in the Department of Second Language Studies at Indiana University.

We humans have a unique capacity to acquire language, even as adults. However, if you have ever used Duolingo, you might have realized that children are more successful at acquiring languages than adults. This observation is puzzling; since adults are smarter than children, shouldn’t it be the other way around?

One set of explanations for this paradox focuses on parsing — that is, applying our knowledge of grammar as sentences unfold incrementally. On the one hand, the Shallow Structure Hypothesis claims that adults who acquire a new language simply cannot apply their new grammatical knowledge to sentences as they reveal themselves word-by-word. On the other hand, the Full Parse Hypothesis claims that these adults automatically apply their grammatical knowledge about their new language as sentences play out one word at a time. The Full Parse Hypothesis further recognizes that adults who acquire new languages face challenges that native speakers do not. For example, these adults need to keep their grammatical knowledge about their native language from interfering as they parse sentences in their new language. Importantly, this task might drain mental energy that native speakers are otherwise free to use in order to apply their grammatical knowledge robustly.

A cartoon of the brain, with pictures of a heart, a thought bubble, music notes, numbers, a molecule, and words. — A cartoon of the brain. *Image credit: CC0 on Pixabay*.

Here at IU, the Department of Second Language Studies and its L2 Brain Lab have played an important role in exploring these ideas. The faculty in this department include Laurent Dekydtspotter and Rex Sprouse, who co-formulated the Full Parse Hypothesis, and Professor Dekydtspotter also heads the L2 Brain Lab.

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Eclipses and solar system geometry

Posted on September 25, 2021 by Jennifer Sieben

Eclipses are a marvel of our Solar System, and it’s only due to the precise alignment of the Sun-Earth-Moon system that they happen at all. This marvel of geometry is worth exploring to understand the different types of eclipses and how often they occur.

There are two types of eclipses: solar and lunar. Both rely on light from the Sun being blocked and casting a shadow, but what makes them different is where the human observer is positioned.

Total solar eclipses are the most stunning of eclipses. This is when the Moon completely covers the Sun and the world is plunged into near darkness. However, these events are rare, especially if you cannot travel to see one! In order for a total solar eclipse to happen, the Moon must be in its new moon phase and the observer must be in the path of totality, where the Moon blocks the entire Sun (not just part of it; that would be a partial solar eclipse!).

A diagram showing the Sun-Moon-Earth system and the shadow cast by the Moon on the Earth. — When the Moon blocks the Sun, it creates a solar eclipse. Within the Umbra, viewers will see a total eclipse; within the penumbra, viewers will see a partial eclipse. *Image credit: Jennifer Sieben.*

If the Moon orbits the Earth once per month, you might be wondering why there isn’t a total solar eclipse every month. Even if it’s only partial near you, surely somewhere on Earth there should be one every new moon. The problem is our three-body system isn’t perfect.

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Cannaba-what!?: Cannabinoids in their various forms — mainstream and uncommon

Posted on September 18, 2021 by Taryn Bosquez

If I was to say the word “cannabinoid” to you, where would your mind go? Would you immediately wonder, “What? Is it just a fancy way to say weed?” or would you ask questions like, “As in the molecular components of Cannabis?” or “Are you referring to the specific endogenous cannabinoid ligands in our body?” If your first thoughts align with the latter, prepare for a nice refresher on cannabinoids. If your response was closer to the former, get ready for a crash course in how we characterize cannabinoids and how they can be used to treat various health conditions.

“Cannabinoid” is a term that pertains to the wide array of molecular compounds that modulate cannabinoid receptors, which are present throughout our bodies’ central and peripheral nervous systems. These receptors are part of a larger system called the endocannabinoid system, which is an integral regulatory system in our body. In addition to cannabinoid receptor types 1 and 2 (CB₁ and CB₂, respectively), the endocannabinoid system is comprised of molecular transporters, endogenous cannabinoids, as well as enzymes that build and break down said cannabinoids.

Image of the Cannabis plant and its distinctive green leaves. — A *Cannabis* plant. *Image credit: CCO on Pixabay*.

Cannabinoids can come from different places and, depending on their origin, are characterized and placed into one of three categories: endogenous cannabinoids, phytocannabinoids, and synthetic cannabinoids. Endogenous cannabinoids represent a class of cannabinoids that originate from the body, so these are compounds that we produce naturally. The term “phytocannabinoid” refers to cannabinoid compounds that are naturally produced by the Cannabis plant. In contrast, the class of synthetic cannabinoids consists of cannabinoid compounds that have been synthesized in a lab setting and, therefore, are not naturally-occurring, like its endogenous and phyto- cousins.

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Infographic: Fast fashion and sustainability

Posted on September 11, 2021 by ScIU Editorial Team

The following infographic is based on the ScIU post “The highest price of fashion: Environmental destruction”

infographic about environment friendly fashion. to read the original post go to https://blogs.iu.edu/sciu/2020/08/29/the-highest-price-of-fashion/

Where did all the jobs go?

Posted on September 4, 2021 by Chloe Holden

I was recently re-watching an episode of The Big Bang Theory, where the unfortunate passing of a colleague opened up a tenured position in the department that Sheldon, Raj, and Leonard were all vying for. While most people would find their various tactics to shmooze the tenure committee funny, the part that I found most hilarious was a tenure line being maintained instead of turned into cheaper, temporary adjunct positions. In reality, tenure is a dying position in academia, and it’s severely impacting the job market. This discrepancy between the number of tenure-track faculty positions available relative to doctoral degree graduates is so severe that current graduate students are warning undergraduates to stay away from graduate school, because there will be no jobs in academia for them by the time they graduate.

Pictured is an empty classroom with all the chairs facing a blank white board — *Photo credit: CC0 on Pixabay.*

Scientists working in many sectors are motivated by a love of research, whether or not they hold PhDs or are tenured at research universities. However, many people seek doctoral degrees as a prerequisite for the typical academic career trajectory, which often culminates in a tenured full professorship with ample resources for both research and teaching. While this academic career trajectory has existed for decades, more and more higher education faculty positions switch from tenure-track to adjunct as each year passes. This trend can be dated back to the 1970s and can largely be linked to a combination of: 1) the significant increase in undergraduate students after the GI Bill was passed — more students = more classes and larger classes needing to be taught, 2) university business models focusing on bringing in as much money as possible (yay for capitalism…), and 3) economic recessions. When a recession hits, universities put tenure-track positions on hiring freezes and instead opt for filling the cheaper, temporary adjunct positions. Now, over 70% of higher education faculty are adjunct instructors, and tenure-track positions are becoming a rare find.

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Do scientists get bad grades?

Posted on August 28, 2021 by Taylor Woodward

I wasn’t accepted into grad school when I first applied during my final year of college. The emails beginning with “We’re sorry to inform you” trickled one by one into my inbox, and I spent time frantically trying to figure out my post-graduation plans, since they were previously just ‘grad school.’ Fortunately, most of these emails had good suggestions about actions to take over the next couple of years, but one piece of feedback stung a little more than the rest. One program noted that while I had spent time doing research, my science grades were ‘quite poor.’

Honestly, they weren’t wrong.

A cartoon drawing of a stick figure in the fetal position ruminating about a failed chemistry exam

Before college, I based a large portion of my self-worth and satisfaction on my ‘straight-A’ high school performance. However, a combination of unaddressed physical and mental health challenges really destroyed my GPA when I started taking higher-level science courses. I did well in calculus and general chemistry as a freshman, but was blindsided when I became completely overwhelmed by organic chemistry, molecular biology, and introductory neuroscience courses during my second year. As the semester drew to a close, I had to come to the cold realization that I was no longer a shiny straight-A student, a fundamental part of who I was. After that semester, I decided that science obviously wasn’t for me and started to explore other majors like linguistics and music production. (more…)

Putting it into context: How psychology has shaped our knowledge of universal emotions

Posted on August 21, 2021 by Emma Herms

What are common emotions experienced in your culture? In the United States, happiness, anger, sadness, and fear are considered common emotions. The traditional theory of emotion assumes emotions are universally recognized by all humans. This theory dominates pop culture, with movies like Pixar’s Inside Out, which features characters personifying five emotions that coordinate our every action, and items like Amazon’s Halo Watch, which claims to detect emotions based on tone of voice. Yet, it is not possible to determine what emotion someone is experiencing based only on their face or tone of voice. Instead, our brain makes a prediction that is influenced by past experience, the current context, and interoceptive signals from our body (e.g., heart and breathing rate, hunger cues) from a culture-specific perspective (Barrett, 2017). This prediction is made meaningful through language, such as emotion words. However, our brain’s predictions are not always accurate.

So, what does it mean for an emotion to be universal? A universal emotion is an emotion that is associated with a single facial expression across cultures. For example, an American adult, when angry, scowls with pinched eyebrows. If anger was a universal emotion, then a Chinese adult, when angry, would also scowl with pinched eyebrows.

[Alt-text: Yellow painted eggs with various facial expressions.] — What words would you use to describe these facial expressions? *Image credit: ROMAN ODINTSOV (CCO on Pexels)*.

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