The grocery store sells many kinds of salt, but are they actually different?

Posted on January 15, 2022 by Allison Nelson

I walk down the spice aisle of my local grocery store. It smells like pepper and cinnamon, but all I need is salt. Scanning the shelves of alphabetically arranged spices, it isn’t there. It has a display all its own, just to the left. And there’s not just one type. There are many. Mediterranean sea salt, iodized salt, black truffle salt, kosher salt, smoked salt, the list goes on. But what’s the difference?

According to Samin Nosrat, in her bestselling book, “Salt, Fat, Acid, Heat”, salt is the “most important element of good cooking,” so you have to have it. But what kind should you get? Well, it depends on what qualities matter to you. Is it the geology? The chemistry? The size of the crystal grains? Or maybe the flavor?

From a geologic perspective, salt is a mineral called halite. Halite or sodium chloride is found in seawater. A mineral is anything that has a set chemical formula (although ion substitutions are allowed) that has a set, repeating crystal structure. This base repeating structure can be repeated as long as the right ions are present. But if the chemical formula is always the same, how are there so many types of salt? (more…)

Making and Reaching New Year’s Resolutions the SMART way

Posted on January 8, 2022 by Lindy Howe

It’s January 1st. You bought your notebook, numbered the page, and you’re ready: it is time to make some New Year’s resolutions. If you’re someone that regularly makes resolutions, you’re not alone. The start of a new year brings a natural push to start new routines or try to break bad habits. However, many people struggle to keep resolutions. The good news is, behavioral science and the theory of motivation tell us there are evidence-based strategies that can help.

To start: Goal setting is an effective way to focus attention on behavior change. But don’t just make any goals – make “SMART” goals: Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, and Timely.

A notebook sits in the middle of the photo with “2022” written in big words on the left side and “Goal” written in big letters on the right with one through four numbered under it. To the left is a bunch of flowers sitting on the table and to the right of the notebook there is a coffee cup with coffee in it. — A notebook being used to write down goals for 2022.

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Red wolves are endangered, but how can we protect a species we can’t define?

Posted on January 1, 2022 by Allison Nelson

Red wolves and grey wolves may have once been a single species. But throughout the 1900s, the interbreeding of coyotes and red wolves blurred the line between species. How can we determine whether red and grey wolves are the same or separate species?

The question is a pressing one, if you consider that conservation efforts are based on species. In 1973, the Endangered Species Act was passed, creating the Endangered Species List, which mandates conservation efforts for every animal and plant on the list – based on species. Without a clear definition, conservationists don’t know what exactly they are trying to protect. The red wolf is on the list, but the more populous grey wolf is not. However, if the red wolf and grey wolf were considered the same species, the red wolf would be removed from the Endangered Species List and lose the protections and monetary assistance that the status of being listed provides.

First, a definition: a species is the fundamental biological grouping and denotes a group of the same organism that live, eat, and breed together. Species split frequently, whether through geographic separation, different populations beginning to eat different things, or hybridization (when one species mates with another) (Sites and Marshall, 2004). Hybridization blurs the species boundary. The dog and wolf in the photos below are difficult to tell apart just based on their faces and skulls. Sometimes, a face or skull is all we have. (more…)

Why Worry about James Webb?

Posted on December 25, 2021 by Jennifer Sieben

If everything has gone according to schedule, the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) launched on December 24 and is currently on its way to its final orbit. JWST is designed to be a revolutionary telescope, building on the accomplishments of both the Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. With its infrared instruments, it will enable us to see stars that were previously hidden by dust and to even detect water in the atmospheres of exoplanets. Its huge mirrors will help us collect more light to study the very earliest galaxies and uncover more information about how our universe was formed. Yet, the JWST will still give us gorgeous images of the universe, like Hubble does.

The mission has been in development since 1989, and astronomers around the world have already submitted proposals for their research projects to be part of the 5-10 years of science expected from the telescope. Now, astronomers around the world are biting their nails. There have been numerous delays up to now, but the next month is the scariest part. Why?

A History of Failure

Flinging anything into outer space is scary business. Astronomers also have history looming over their shoulders. In 1990, when the Hubble Space Telescope launched, the telescope wasn’t perfect. There was a problem with the mirror, resulting in blurry images. It took three years of tests and intense training before a shuttle mission was sent into space with astronauts, who manually added corrective lenses to the telescope, before we could get the spectacular images that the telescope is now known for.

Unfortunately, there are even more things that could go wrong with JWST. Actually, there are hundreds of things that could go wrong; the telescope has 50 major deployments, 178 release mechanisms (107 for the sunshield alone), and 300 single point failure items, and all of these parts need to work perfectly for the telescope to unfold.

A large silver sunshield is unfolded while a bunch of scientists look on. The shield is approximately diamond-shaped and one side has twelve people standing alongside it. — The sunshield on JWST is the largest part of the observatory — five layers of thin membrane about the size of a tennis court that must unfurl reliably in space to precise tolerances. In 2014, engineers stacked and unfurled a full-sized test unit of the sunshield for the first time. The sunshield separates the observatory into a hot, sun-facing side (reaching temperatures close to 230 degrees Fahrenheit) and a cold side (approximately minus 400 degrees Fahrenheit), where the sunlight is blocked from interfering with the sensitive telescope instruments. *Image credit: NASA/Chris Gunn.*

Wait, Unfold?

The telescope is a marvel of origami; it needs to be in order to fit inside the rocket which launches it. It will take at least two weeks for the unfolding process to happen, and although it has been tested on the ground, it is still nerve-wracking. I know every time I watch the simulation, I get worried.

Like any telescope, JWST is a delicate instrument. Which we have put on top of one of the most powerful rockets in the world. During launch, JWST suffers extreme vibrations and heat exposure. Tests to ensure it survives launch are a crucial part of preparation, and some of the delays have been because of these tests.

The Last Chance

More than the physical stresses of launch, this event also represents the last chance to tweak anything. JWST will orbit not the Earth, but the Sun. It will be 1 million miles from us — too far away for us to do anything if something goes wrong. At that distance, its giant sunshield will keep the scientific instruments shielded from the heat of the Sun and the Earth.

Astronomers around the world will be anxious over the next six months. Although the unfolding will complete in a month, there are still some alignment procedures and test targets to observe. In six months, the next generation space telescope will be ready for astronomers to take observations, and we will learn exciting new science over the next decade.

In the meantime, if you know an astronomer in your life, make them a cup of tea and tell them it will be alright.

If you’d like to learn more about JWST, I highly recommend the official YouTube channel for the telescope.

Edited by: Taylor Woodward and Kat Munley

The happiest biotechnology lab on Earth

Posted on December 18, 2021 by Guest Contributor

This post was written by ScIU Undergraduate Intern Rose Schnabel.

A trip to Walt Disney World includes popcorn, fireworks, and…genetic engineering? As discussed in a previous ScIU post, Disney attractions are full of surprising science, like illusions in the Haunted Mansion and electron movement in firework shows, but perhaps the most interesting example is the biotechnology at work in the Living with the Land attraction at EPCOT.

A magazine article that describes the Listen to the Land attraction as it stood in 1989 with photos of the boat ride and growing crops. — A copy of the September 1989 issue of Agricultural Research magazine, which contains an article about the Listen to the Land attraction at EPCOT. *Image credit: Agricultural Research magazine.*

In 1982, Disney debuted Listen to the Land, a slow-moving boat ride through agricultural vignettes that culminated in a visit to sprawling greenhouses that provided a peek at Disney’s biotechnology labs. Inside, scientists in white lab coats pipetted and plated dozens of samples. The September 1989 issue of Agricultural Research magazine put it plainly: “ten million people a year now get a close-up look at tissue culture and biotechnology in action.”

The lab, launched as a partnership between Walt Disney World, Kraft, and the USDA’s Agricultural Research Service (ARS), now operates as a branch of the Functional Genomics and Breeding Research Unit under the ARS. Since its conception, the lab has focused on improving the durability, yield, and disease resistance of crops, especially fruit trees. Researchers do so through tissue culture and cloning, two popular techniques in molecular biology that allow scientists to test different genetic modifications.

Tissue culture, also known as micropropagation, is a process that uses a cell or part of an organ to grow tissue in an artificial environment. For plants, tissue samples are cut or scraped from the parent plant and placed onto a solid or liquid growth medium. The medium contains vitamins, nitrogen, and plant growth hormones in various quantities according to the needs of the organism. Over a period of a few days or weeks, samples develop into tiny plantlets and can be transplanted into normal soil. This technique is especially useful for creating large numbers of plants or for propagating species that are difficult to grow from seed.

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Finding a therapist: Frequently asked questions

Posted on December 11, 2021 by Lindy Howe

Thinking about starting therapy but overwhelmed by the process of finding a therapist? You’re not alone. There are a lot of reasons that people don’t seek treatment. This post will discuss how to find a therapist and things to consider during your search.

Should I go to therapy? How do I know when it’s “time?”

The shortest answer is therapy can be appropriate at any time, as long as you want to be there. It is extremely common to seek therapy when we’re struggling with severe or minor difficulties. Some clinics are specialized for certain clientele, but therapists at a general clinic are usually happy to meet with any client or point you in the direction that would be most helpful.

Photograph of a man gesturing with his left hand. He is speaking to a woman sitting across from him, who is writing notes on a clipboard. — A patient attending a therapy session. *Image credit: cottonbro (CC0 on Pexels).*

Okay, I want to do it. How do I find a therapist?

Thank goodness for the internet, which is a great place to start! A lot of therapists and clinics have a website or profile page on a medical database. Start by searching for “mental health therapists…” + your zip code or “near me.” From here, there are several strategies you can use to narrow down your results:

Try being more specific. What do you need therapy for (like anxiety or depression)? What type of therapy are you looking for (e.g., cognitive behavioral therapy, mindfulness)?
Use a therapy-finder from a reputable directory, such as the American Psychological Association’s Psychologist Locator.
Ask your primary care provider and/or friends and family for their recommendations, if you feel comfortable doing so.

If you are reading this post from Bloomington, IN, IU’s Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Clinic and the APA’s Psychologist Locator for the 47401 zip code are great places to start.

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Primates: Nature’s grounds keepers

Posted on December 4, 2021 by ScIU Editorial Team

This post is from ScIU’s archives. It was originally published by Chloe Holden in September 2019 and has been lightly edited to reflect current events.

This is the second installment of the Primate Conservation Series. You can read Part 1 here.

A male orangutan with flanges on his face looks off to the side. — A male orangutan. *Image credit: CC0 on Pixabay.*

Over the past few years, the iconic video below has become the face of orangutan conservation efforts: a young male orangutan confronting a bulldozer as it destroys the forest around him. Orangutan populations once stretched from the islands of Indonesia through Vietnam and into the south Asian continent. Fossils of orangutan ancestors have even been found all the way up into northern India! Today, wild orangutans can only be found in Sumatra and Borneo, two islands in Indonesia. Their habitats have been significantly destroyed, largely in the past 75 years, due to illegal logging and deforestation to make room for palm oil plantations, as well as other agricultural crops. Habitat destruction can have profound environmental impacts because primates all over the globe play a significant role in maintaining the health of many of the world’s forests, doing their own part in combating the effects of climate change.

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The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2021

Posted on November 27, 2021 by Justin Bryant

The question of how we sense the environment around us has fascinated humans for centuries. The first attempts at a theoretical understanding of the senses were discovered in the writings of early Greek thinkers in the sixth and fifth centuries BCE. However, the gap between our theories and our understanding of how our senses work is continuing to shrink. This year, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded jointly to Dr. David Julius and Dr. Ardem Patapoutian, two scientists who independently discovered mechanisms of how we sense temperature and touch.

A flyer with two award-winning scientists, a coin engraved with "Alfred Nobel", and the heading "The 2021 Nobel Prize Laureates." — The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Dr. David Julius and Dr. Ardem Patapoutian, who independently discovered mechanisms of how we sense temperature and touch. *Image credit: Niklas Elmehed, Nobel Prize Outreach.*

This work goes back to the early 1900s, when it was discovered that there are different types of sensory nerve fibers that react to distinct stimuli. Nerve fibers are the axons (long, slender projections from a nerve cell) that conduct electrical impulses to communicate with other neurons (a type of cell of the nervous system). In fact, nerve cells are highly specialized for detecting and converting different types of stimuli into electrical impulses, thereby allowing us to sense a broad range of perceptions from our surrounding environment. But there was a major hurdle in understanding how our senses actually work; how are temperature and mechanical stimuli translated into electrical impulses in the nervous system?

In the late 1990s, Dr. Julius at UC San Francisco had the idea of using capsaicin (the chemical compound responsible for the burning sensation you feel when eating a pepper) as a way to parse out the mechanism of temperature sensation. He reasoned that because capsaicin elicits a similar burning sensation as actual heat does, the mechanism may be the same. Using a library of DNA fragments extracted from a sensory neuron known to react to capsaicin, he and his co-workers individually expressed these fragments in a culture of cells known not to react to capsaicin, hypothesizing that one of these DNA fragments corresponded to the protein responsible for the cells’ reaction with capsaicin. Eventually, using one of these DNA fragments, they were able to make normally unreactive cells capable of reacting to capsaicin. This DNA fragment corresponded to a novel ion channel protein, which they called TRPV1. When Dr. Julius investigated the protein’s ability to confer a temperature response, he discovered that TRPV1 is responsible for sensing temperatures above a certain threshold that is perceived as painful (>43°C, or >109°F).

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Disney demystified: The science of magic

Posted on November 13, 2021 by Guest Contributor

This post was written by ScIU Undergraduate Intern Rose Schnabel.

A day at Walt Disney World exceeds all expectations. Rides move flawlessly on their complex tracks, fireworks appear out of thin air, and the scent of cotton candy floats in the air. It’s as if everything happens on cue, guided by a mysterious force. It could be magic, yes, but what if it’s science? Read on for five feats of engineering, chemistry, and biology that have probably escaped your notice in the parks!

A black silhouette of Cinderella’s Castle covered in white line drawings of scientific concepts and instruments such as beakers, elements, leaves, DNA, stars, chemical structures, and arrows. — Science takes over Cinderella’s Castle.

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